Offensive Weapons

Among archaeological finds of weaponry, stone blades were found in abundance in burials, in caches under stone monuments or just scattered among ancient ruins. On guessing the purpose of these blades, however, one must be careful because the same instrument could have been used to cut meat (kitchen utensil), kill game (hunting gear), carve wooden objected (industrial tool), kill sacrificial victims (ceremonial object), or to fight off or attack adversaries (military weapon).

The ancient Maya stone blades we had the opportunity to examine varied in length from 6 cms (shorter blades were classified as arrowheads) to 76 cms. Most of the shorter blades were undoubtedly knives while some of the longer ones may have been used as spearheads or javelins. Which of these knives had handles in the ancient times and which were hand held, we do not know. There is, however, pictorial evidence that the Maya carried both types of knives. Surviving examples of >>complete<< knives (blades with handles) are rare, probably because most handles were made of wood which disintegrated during the centuries past. The lower quality knives were probably household tools, while the specimens of large size and higher quality workmanship were probably either weapons or sacrificial paraphernalia. VILLAGUITERRE, in his >>History of the Conquest of the Itzas,<< mentions the >>short knives with feathers on the handles were carried by the caciques or chiefs in battle.<< He, however, naturally refers to much later historical periods.

Knife blades found at Guatemala Classic sites could be roughly divided into two groups: the ones with a symmetrical laurel-leaf shape and those with a snubbed-off end, an indication that it may have been inserted into a wooden shaft. In general, the flint and obsidian knives of the Maya had no preformed handles. An exception to this rule are the magnificent obsidian daggers with rounded handles found in the Motagua Valley, now in the Maldonado collection in Guatemala.

The stone blade was not only a practical tool and an important weapon but also a sacred object for the ancient Maya. It is portrayed in such contexts in numerous vase paintings where it often forms part of not only historical or mythological action but also of the iconography and the glyphic text. In the Popol Vuh saga, which was written in the post-Conquest times, but undoubtedly represents a collection of mythical and historical events of a much earlier period, personified knives are prominently referred to in the trials and tribulations of the Hero Twins who were obliged to spend a night in the formidable >>house of Knives.<<

Some of the most outstanding examples of Classic Maya obsidian knives were made not in an oval, bayleaf shape, but in the form of undulating serpents with the head of the snake serving as the handle.

As judged from sculptural and pictorial representations, spears and lances were the principal offensive weapons of the Classic maya warrior. Some of them appear to be merely staffs hardened in fire. Most of them, however, have distinct wooden handles and blades of flint fastened by wrapping. Most of these lance heads were made in a triangular shape with a harp point evidently for penetration; others have sharp cutting edges to penetrate as well as to slice. Spearheads with serrated edges were designed to tear while being thrust into and withdrawn from the attacked, something of a pre-Columbian equivalent of our modern >>dum-dum<< bullets. Some of these spearheads are massive and barbed, designed for heavy fighting; others, however, are finely and elaborately decorated, bordering on the definition of a >>stone filigree<< and likely designed for ceremonial purposes only. Characteristically, ancient Maya spearheads were made in the form of the bayleaf oval, with one or both ends culminating in sharp points, or in the form of an elongated triangle, but never dove-tailed like those of the Indians of the North American plains or harpoon-shaped like the spears of the indigenous tribes of the Northwest. As shown on monuments and vast paintings, lances which were carried by rules or other ranking officials were often embellished with streamers of cloth and probably served as signs of office or as banners if carried in battle. Several of these flint spearheads have been recovered in excellent condition at different archaeological sites. Judging from their size and weight, some of them were used as heavy battle-spears, others probably as light javelins. The specimens we had the opportunity to examine varied from 15 to 17 cms in length, 2 to 8 cms in width, and 3 to 8 cms in thickness. Some of the blades were smooth, others were barbed, serrated, or notched. The diagnosis that these smooth blades were spearheads indeed and not knives was not always conclusive and was based primarily on the thickness of the shaft and the elongated point, features usually absent in knives. The most remarkable finds we had the chance to observe were several specimens of double pointed spearheads of highest quality workmanship which were found in the Motagua Valley. Probably they were made by the same artisans who produced several elaborate flint scepters which are now housed in different museum collections.

The battle-axes of the Classic Maya were of two main varieties, those made of a single piece of stone, usually flint, and wooden hafted axes spiked with either a single heavy head or with two or three separate blades of obsidian. Besides being a regular attribute of the armor of the common warrior, axes were also often depicted as ceremonial implements of the priest-sacrificer and were probably used in ritual decapitations. Some of these ceremonial axes are shown as extremely fragile, even stylized with a snake representing the handle and a flower the blade. Axes which may have been used either in battle, sacrifice, or simply as insignia of office, are frequently shown on painted vases of norther Peten and the Usamacinta Valley. They are also seen on the monuments of Yaxchilan, Xcalumkin, Palenque, Jaina and Oxpemul, but to our knowledge not on the monuments of Guatemala. Most of these axes seem to be composite weapons, some of them highly decorated with separate wooden handles and blades of flint or obsidian as inserts. Very rare, unique findings are the full size battle axes, flaked of a single piece of stone, which represent the height of ancient Maya weaponry.

A unique Classic Maya weapon discovered at Peten is the mace-dagger which is reminiscent of the dagger-pistol of the New Orleans saloons which bear the inscription: >>Shoot once, stab twice, then run like hell!<< The Maya flint axe-dagger (the example mentioned weights 10 Kgs), may have been used either as a battle-axe or as a large dagger, depending on which the warrior held onto.

The Maya broad swords found in the Motagua Valley in the region of Quirigua are long and heavy double-edged flint-swords apparently designed to be held with two hands to be applied in close combat. The two examples known to us weight 12 and 14 Kgs respectively and are measured 80 and 122 cms. In length.

While early Spanish chronicles describe many varieties of projectile weapons (the friar accompanying ALVARADO’s troups speaks of >>hails of arrows and stones<< and of beehives hurled at the invading Spaniards), data regarding such weapons of the Classic Period are scarce. As far as the usage of the bow and arrow is concerned, there is a considerable degree of uncertainty among scholars. While it is indeed a fact that some Spanish historians, such as HERRERA, report that the Maya in Guatemala indeed used arrows at the time of the Conquest, there is no direct or indirect archaeological evidence that arrows were used during the earlier Classic Period. While obsidian arrowheads were recovered at Morales and at several Pacific sites, it is indeed unproven that they were used by the Classic Maya. We also had the opportunity to examine long, slim and sharp pointed flints which appeared to be javelins and caches of obsidian arrowheads discovered at different Motagua Valley sites. Among hundred of artifacts depicting military or war scenes of the Classic era, we found no portrayal of bows or arrows but several case paintings portray javelins. Similarly, while at the Post-Classic Toltec-maya site of Chichen Itza, warriors are portrayed carrying the formidable pre-Columbian weapon, the atlatl, the spear thrower used extensively by Mexican tribes, we have no evidence that the Mayas of the Classic Period knew or used this device. While there is some theorizing the hook-like objects held by personages portrayed on a few stone monuments are in reality spear throwers direct or indirect evidence that they indeed were is lacking.

Among projectile weapons we are sure the Classic Maya used are slingstones and blowguns. Blowguns played prominent roles in some of the surviving ancient legends, and are also depicted on painted and carved Maya pottery, but only in the context of hunting birds by stunning or killing them with clay pellets. The probability is low that blowguns were also used against human targets.

Judging from ceramic evidence as well as surviving stone objects, war-clubs and maces were preferred weaponry in the Guatemalan Highlands but were used less frequently in the Peten or the Motagua and the Usamacinta Valleys. These weapons were constructed of a wooden handle and a bulbous mace head. The latter was either a continuation of the handle itself, i.e., from the same undevided piece of wood, or a separate centrally perforated round stone object pressed upon the handle. Most examples of stone mace heads are undecorated and were made of tuff or basalt. There are, however, a few examples made of jadeite or jade which are carved elaborately, suggesting that, besides serving as weapons, they also represented military rank and/or high social position. Representations of war-clubs are rare on stone monuments and, as far as we know, nonexistent on painted ceramics. Stela 5 at Uaxactun, however, shows a warrior holding a club which is studded with (stone?) blades. Such weapons were used extensively in the Mexican armies of the Post-Classic Period and it is not impossible that such clubs were also in existence during the Classic Period. Some of the shorter flint and obsidian blades found at different sites may indeed have been used to stud war-clubs. Clubs made entirely of wood were probably used extensively in the Highlands or may be seen on many ceramic figurines of warriors holding clubs found in the Quiche region.

It is hard to express a meaningful opinion on celts—wedge-shaped stones which have been recovered throughout the Maya region in a virtually unlimited quantity. Most of them were made of stone of inferior quality; however, we had the opportunity to study some of which were made of fine jade. It is most probable that small and middle sized celts were applied in carving of stone and wood and in performance of odd jobs around the house. Some of the larger and more elaborate celts, however, may well have been used against the enemy similar to the chain-armor piercing formidable >>fokos<< of medieval Hungarian knights of Europe.

Large separated flint stones of various shapes were found in a fair number of different Classic Maya sites, especially in the Motagua Valley in the region of Copan and Quirigua. In some instances, the deep serration made them so fragile that they must have lost their practical use and served only as ornaments. Others, however, were very heavy blades or semi-circular objects which in appropriate hands and handles appeared to be most suitable to inflict heavy bodily damage on the enemy or animal.